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BANCROFT 
LIBRARY 

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THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 
OF  CALIFORNIA 


PANAMA  IN  PICTURES 

GRAPHIC  VIEWS  OF  THE  GREAT  NEW  WATERWAY  FROM 

ATLANTIC  TO  PACIFIC 


With  a  Full  Description  of  the  Canal  and  History  of  the  Undertaking 


THOMAS  H.  RUSSELL,  A.  M.,  LL.D. 

MEMBER  NATIONAL.  GEOGRAPHIC  SOCIETY 


M.   A.    DONOHUE    &    CO. 

PUBLISHERS 
CHICAGO 


pr 


COPYRIGHT,  1913, 
,BV 

M.  A.  DONO.  IUE  &  CO. 


THE  PANAMA  CANAL    *-,»-.. 


FTER  five  centuries  of  effort  by  men  of  various 
nationalities,  we  of  the  United  States  are  about 
to  complete  a  direct  westerly  route  from 
Europe  to  the  Orient,  by  means  of  a  canal 
across  the  Isthmus  of  Panama.  The  official 
date  for  a  formal  opening  of  the  Canal  has  been  set  for 
January  1,  1915,  but  the  year  1913  will  undoubtedly 
see,  not  only  the  turning  of  water  into  the  great 
ditch,  to  be  restrained,  controlled  and  regulated  by  its 
mammoth  locks,  but  also  the  passage  through  the 
new  waterway  of  vessels  freighted  with  international 
commerce. 

This  gigantic  undertaking,  thus  carried  to  completion 
in  record-breaking  time  by  American  enterprise  and 
energy,  ranks  as  the  world's  greatest  feat  of  engineer- 
ing. Every  feature  of  the  Canal  construction,  of 
Isthmian  history  and  of  Canal  Zone  administration  is 
therefore  full  of  interest  for  the  patriotic  American 
citizen. 

Christopher  Columbus  dreamed  of  a  short  cut  to  the 
Orient  by  the  way  of  the  West.  Balboa  in  1513  dis- 
covered the  proximity  of  the  oceans  by  crossing  the 
mountains  of  the  Isthmus  and  sighting  the  Pacific; 
and  it  is  said  that  as  early  as  1520  Charles  V  of  Spain 
ordered  the  Isthmus  of  Panama  to  be  surveyed  with  a 
view  to  ascertaining  the  best  route  for  a  canal  across 
it.  Many  expeditions  were  sent  out  from  the  mari- 
time countries  of  Europe  and  many  interoceanic  plans 


BANCROFT 
LIBRARY 

were  projected,  but  up  to  the  close  of  the  18th  century 
no  actual  progress  had  been  made  towards  the  estab- 
lishment of  water  communication  between  the  Atlantic 
and  the  Pacific. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  19th  century  Humboldt, 
the  great  scientist,  who  spent  several  years  in  Central 
America,  suggested  no  fewer  than  nine  routes  for  an 
interoceanic  ship  canal,  and  the  general  attention  of 
the  civilized  world  was  called  to  the  subject. 

In  1835  the  United  States  first  became  interested  in 
the  project  through  a  resolution  introduced  in  the 
Senate  by  Henry  Clay,  but  the  panic  of  1837  effectually 
estopped  actjoja  contemplated  at  that  time. 

In  1838  a  concession  was  granted  to  a  French  com- 
pany for  the  construction  of  highways,  railroads  or  a 
canal  across  the  Isthmus,  but  the  concession  lapsed  for 
lack  of  capital. 

The  first  reliable  survey  of  a  route  for  a  waterway  in 
Isthmian  territory  was  made  at  Nicaragua  in  the  '40s 
by  Col.  Childs  for  the  American  Atlantic  &  Pacific 
Company,  which  had  secured  concessions  for  canal 
construction.  Many  enterprising  citizens  of  the  United 
States,  as  well  as  Europeans,  had  long  had  their  eyes 
fixed  upon  the  possibilities  afforded  by  the  Isthmus  and 
soon  after  Col.  Childs'  survey  the  governments  of 
Great  Britain,  France  and  the  United  States  grew 
interested  in  the  active  explorations  made  by  private 
individuals  and  companies. 


The  year  1855  saw  the  opening  of  the  Panama  Rail- 
road, constructed  by  Americans  across  the  .Isthmus. 
The  concession  of  the  company  gave  it  control  of  the 
Panama  route  for  a  canal,  but  with  railroad  communica- 
tion firmly  established  and  financially  successful,  the 
idea  of  canal  construction  was  relegated  to  the  back- 
ground. 

Meanwhile  other  canal  routes  were  exploited  by 
a  small  army  of  promoters.  Altogether  nineteen  dif- 
ferent routes  have  been  suggested  and  received  more 
or  less  attention.  Of  these,  the  Tehuantepec,  Nicaragua, 
Panama,  and  Darien  projects  are  the  most  important, 
and  Nicaragua  has  been  Panama's  principal  rival  in  the 
last  thirty  years. 

In  1872  an  Interoceanic  Canal  Commission  was 
created  by  the  United  States  Congress^.  This  com- 
mission reported  in  1876  in  favor  of  a  canal  and  the 
Nicaragua  route,  but  no  active  steps  followed. 

Futile  Efforts  of  the  French 

In  September,  1879,  the  great  French  engineer, 
Ferdinand  de  Lesseps,  fresh  from  his  triumph  at  Suez, 
went  to  the  Isthmus  of  Panama  and  soon  after  pub- 
lished plans  for  a  sea-level  canal  28  feet  deep,  to  cost 
$132,000,000.  After  visiting  the  United  States  to 
interest  this  government,  he  returned  to  France  and 
organized  the  Panama  Canal  Company,  capitalized  at 
$80,000,000,  which  on  the  strength  of  De  Lesseps' 
reputation  was  promptly  subscribed  by  the  thrifty 
French. 

The  history  of  the  French  Company  is  a  history  of 
misrepresentation  and  disaster.  In  1882  actual  con- 


struction was  begun  upon  the  Isthmus,  the  Panama 
route  having  been  selected,  and  several  thousand 
laborers  were  put  to  work.  Graft,  extravagance,  im- 
morality, and  disease  ensued  and  soon  marred  the  proj- 
ect. The  cost  of  a  sea-level  canal  having  been  grossly 
underestimated,  the  plans  were  changed  in  1887  to 
provide  for  a  cheaper  lock  canal,  but  it  was  too  late. 
The  company  was  too  deeply  involved,  and  in  February, 
1889,  it  went  into  the  hands  of  a  receiver. 

In  October,  1893,  the  New  Panama  Canal  Company 
was  organized  by  the  French  out  of  the  ruins  of  the 
old  company,  and  new  surveys  were  made  at  the 
Isthmus.  These  surveys  subsequently  proved  very 
valuable  to  the  American  engineers,  but  constructive 
progress  at  Panama  under  the  new  French  company 
soon  ceased  for  lack  of  funds,  the  French  investors 
having  lost  faith  in  the  project. 

In  1897  Congress  created  the  first  Isthmian  Canal 
Commission,  headed  by  Admiral  John  G.  Walker,  and 
on  March  3,  1899,  an  act  of  Congress  authorized  the 
President  to  make  complete  investigations  of  the 
Isthmus  of  Panama  with  a  view  to  the  construction  of 
a  canal  to  connect  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  Oceans. 

In  1903  the  Republic  of  Panama  was  formed  by 
secession  of  its  people  from  Colombia,  which  was  block- 
ing Isthmian  canal  progress.  The  new  republic  re- 
ceived prompt  recognition  from  President  Roosevelt 
and  in  February,  1904,  it  concluded  a  treaty  with  the 
United  States  for  the  grant  to  the  latter  in  perpetuity 
of  a  zone  for  the  construction  and  operation  of  a  canal. 


The  Canal  Zone 

The  Canal  Zone  contains  about  448  square  miles. 
It  begins  at  a  point  three  marine  miles  from  mean 
low  water  mark  in  each  ocean,  and  extends  for  five 
miles  on  each  side  of  the  center  line  of  the  route  of  the 
canal.  It  includes  the  group  of  islands  in  the  Bay 
of  Panama  named  Perico,  Naos,  Culebra,  and  Flamenco. 
The  cities  of  Panama  and  Colon  are  excluded  from  the 
zone,  but  the  United  States  has  the  right  to  enforce 
sanitary  ordinances  in  those  cities,  and  to  maintain 
public  order  in  them  in  case  the  Republic  of  Panama 
should  not  be  able,  in  the  judgment  of  the  United  States 
to  do  so. 

Of  the  448  square  miles  of  zone  territory,  the  United 
States  owns  the  larger  portion,  the  exact  amount  of 
which  is  being  determined  by  survey.  Under  the  treaty 
with  Panama,  the  United  States  has  the  right  to  acquire 
by  purchase,  or  by  the  exercise  of  the  right  of  eminent 
domain,  any  lands,  buildings,  water  rights,  or  other 
properties  necessary  and  convenient  for  the  construc- 
tion, maintenance,  operation,  sanitation,  and  protection 
of  the  canal,  and  it  can,  therefore,  at  any  time  acquire 
the  lands  within  the  zone  boundaries  which  are  owned 
by  private  persons. 

The  new  Republic  of  Panama  has  an  area  of  about 
31,000  square  miles  and  a  population  estimated  at 
about  419,000.  The  treaty  establishing  the  Canal 
Zone  provided  for  the  payment,  under  certain  con- 
ditions of  the  sum  of  $10,000,000  by  the  United  States 
to  the  republic  and  an  annual  payment  of  $250,000 
beginning  nine  years  after  the  signing  of  the  treaty. 


Under  American  Control 

The  formal  transfer  of  the  property  of  the  French 
Canal  Company  to  the  United  States  took  place  on 
May  4,  1904,  and  the  next  thirty  months,  or  until 
January,  1907,  ,were  devoted  principally  to  the  work  of 
preparation  for  active  and  efficient  construction. 

The  first  step  was  a  reorganization  of  the  Walker 
Commission,  Mr.  John  F.  Wallace  being  appointed 
engineer-in-chief.  He  resigned  in  1905  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Mr.  John  F.  Stevens,  a  noted  railway  en- 
gineer. An  International  Board  of  Consulting  En- 
gineers was  appointed  by  President  Roosevelt  to  con- 
sider the  type  of  canal  to  be  built  and  in  February, 
1906,  this  board  reported  in  favor  of  a  sea-level  canal. 
The  majority  of  the  American  members  of  the  board, 
however,  favored  a  multi-lock  canal,  as  both  cheaper 
and  more  readily  built.  The  President,  therefore, 
recommended  to  Congress  the  lock  type  of  canal  and 
the  original  plans  were  allowed  to  stand. 


Profile  of  Canal 


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Cross  Section  Catun  Dam. 


After  about  nine  months  of  constructive  work,  Chief 
Engineer  Stevens  resigned,  in  April,  1907,  and  the  super- 
intendence of  the  great  undertaking  was  then  turned 
over  to  the  United  States  Army,  the  Isthmian  Canal 
Commission  being  completely  reorganized  for  the  pur- 
pose. Since  that  time  the  work  has  steadily  progressed 
toward  completion. 

The  Military  Regime 

Col.  George  W.  Goethals,  Corps  of  Engineers,  U.  S.  A. 
was  appointed  Chairman  of  the  Commission  and 
Chief  Engineer.  His  splendid  record  in  charge  of  the 
work  will  make  a  shining  page  in  American  history. 
The  other  members  of  the  reorganized  Commission 
were:  Lieut.-Col.  H.  F.  Hodges,  U.  S.  A.,  Lieut.- 
Col.  D.  D.  Gaillard,  U.  S.  A.,  Lieut.-Col.  Wm.  L. 
Sibert,  U.  S.  A. ;  Civil  Engineer  H.  H.  Rousseau,  U.  S.  N. ; 
Col.  Wm.  C.  Gorgas,  U.  S.  A.,  and  Hon.  J.  C.  S.  Black- 
burn, former  United  States  Senator.  In  April,  1910, 
Senator  Blackburn  retired  and  Mr.  Maurice  H.Thatcher 
was  appointed  to  fill  the  vacancy. 

Admirable  organization  and  perfect  discipline  have 
been  striking  features  of  the  military  regime.  Since 
Col.  Goethals  and  his  army  associates  assumed  control 
of  the  engineering  and  construction  work,  the  project 
has  been  pushed  with  a  thoroughness  and  speed  that 
exceeded  the  expectations  even  of  those  who  had  the 
utmost  confidence  in  their  ability  and  energy.  The 
absence  of  inside  friction  has  been  as  remarkable  as  the 
steady  progress  of  construction. 

The  Work  of  Construction 

In  the  organization  of  the  Engineering  Department 
all  construction  work  was  divided  into  three  districts, 


each  under  a  Division  Engineer,  with  full  control  and 
responsibility.     These  districts  are  as  follows: 

1.  The    Atlantic    Division,    extending    from    deep 
water  to  Gatun  Lake  and  including  the  great  Gatun 
locks  and  dam.    This  is  the  most  important  and  diffi- 
cult section  of  the  entire  undertaking.     Col.  Sibert, 
Division  Engineer. 

2.  The  Central  Division,  extending  from  Gatun  Dam 
to  the  locks  at  Pedro  Miguel.     This  includes  the  Cule- 
bra  Cut  and  involved  the  greatest  amount  of  exca- 
vation work.     Col.  Gaillard,  Division  Engineer. 

3.  The  Pacific  Division,  extending  from  Pedro  Miguel 
to  deep  water  in  the  Pacific  Ocean.     It  includes  Pedro 
Miguel  locks  and  dam  and  the  Miraflores  locks,  dam 
and  tunnel.     S.  M.  Williamson,  Division  Engineer. 

The  work  of  canal  construction  has  been  divided 
into  three  general  classes,  as  follows: 

1.  Wet  excavation  or  dredging,  amounting  to   12 
per  cent  of  the  whole  work  and  occurring  principally  in 
the  terminal  channels. 

2.  Dry  excavation,  including  removal  of  material  by 
steam  shovels  and  other  power  excavators.     Nearly 
50  per  cent  of  the  entire  work. 

3.  Construction  of  locks,  dams,  tunnels  and  spill- 
ways, estimated  at  39  per  cent  of  the  work. 

Unit  Costs  of  Canal  Work 

The  average  cost  of  dry  excavation  in  the  Central 
Division  (including  the  Culebra  Cut)  for  the  fiscal  year 
ending  June  30,  1911,  was  58.80  cents  for  direct  charges, 
and  4.57  cents  for  administrative  and  general  expenses 
of  the  Isthmian  Canal  Commission,  making  the  total 
average  cost  63.37  cents  per  cubic  yard. 


The  average  cost  for  dredging  in  the  Atlantic  end  of 
the  Canal  for  the  fiscal  year  ending  June  30,  1911,  was 
22.15  cents  for  direct  charges,  and  2.18  cents  for  ad- 
ministrative and  general  expenses  of  the  Isthmian  Canal 
Commission,  making  the  total  average  cost  24.33  cents 
per  cubic  yard. 

The  average  cost  of  dredging  in  the  Pacific  end  of 
the  Canal  for  the  fiscal  year  ending  June  30,  1911,  was 
25.19  cents  for  direct  charges,  and  2.45  cents  for  ad- 
ministrative and  general  expenses  of  the  Isthmian 
Canal  Commission,  making  the  total  average  cost 
27.64  cents  per  cubic  yard. 

Steam  Shovel  and  Dredge  Work 

There  are  now  on  the  Isthmus  100  steam  shovels  of 
different  capacities  and  18  dredges,  the  latter  being 
classified  as  7  ladder,  3  dipper,  6  pipe-line  suction,  and 
2  sea-going  suction  dredges. 

Several  classes  of  steam  shovels  are  engaged  in  ex- 
cavating work,  equipped  with  dippers  ranging  in  capac- 
ity from  1%  cubic  yards  to  5  cubic  yards.  Each  cubic 
yard,  place  measurement,  of  average  rock  weighs  about 
3,900  pounds;  of  earth,  about  3,000  pounds;  of  "the 
run  of  the  cut,"  about  3,600  pounds,  and  is  said  to 
represent  about  a  two-horse  cart  load.  Consequently, 
a  five-cubic  yard  dipper,  when  full,  carries  8.7  tons  of 
rock,  6.7  tons  of  earth,  and  8.03  tons  of  the  "run  of 
the  cut." 

Three  classes  of  cars  are  used  in  hauling  spoil — flat 
cars,  which  are  unloaded  by  plows,  and  two  kinds  of 
dump  cars.  The  capacity  of  the  flat  car  is  19  cubic 
yards;  that  of  the  large  dump  cars,  17  cubic  yards, 
and  that  of  the  small  dump  cars,  10  cubic  yards. 


The  average  load  of  a  train  of  flat  cars,  in  hauling 
the  mixed  material  known  as  "the  run  of  the  cut,"  is 
610.7  tons  (based  on  a  20-car  train) ;  of  a  train  of  large 
dump  cars,  737.68  tons,  and  of  a  train  of  small  dumps, 
562.5  tons. 

The  record  day's  work  for  one  steam  shovel  was  that 
of  March  22,  1910,  4,823  cubic  yards  of  rock  (place 
measurement),  or  8,395  tons.  The  highest  daily  record 
in  the  Central  Division  was  on  March  11,  1911,  when 
51  steam  shovels  and  2  cranes  equipped  with  orange 
peel  buckets  excavated  an  aggregate  of  79,484  cubic 
yards,  or  127,742  tons.  During  this  day,  333  loaded 
trains  and  as  many  empty  trains  were  run  to  and  from 
the  dumping  grounds. 

Total  Amount  of  Excavation 

The  following  was  the  estimated  excavation  required 
May  4,  1904,  based  on  the  plans  for  the  lock  canal: 

Cubic  feet. 

Atlantic  Division 47,523,000 

Central  Division 106,417,000 

Pacific  Division 58,287,000 


212,227,000 

Of  this  excavation,  180,423,874  cubic  feet  had  been 
accomplished  by  Americans  to  October  1,  1912,  leaving 
approximately  31,803,126  cubic  feet  remaining  to  be 
excavated. 

The  amount  of  material  taken  out  by  the  Old  and 
New  Panama  Canal  Companies  (French)  was  78,146,- 
960  cubic  yards,  of  which  it  is  estimated  29,908,000 
cubic  yards  has  been  utilized  in  the  adopted  plan  of 


8 


canal;    making  the    total   excavation   for  the   canal 
242,135,000  cubic  yards. 

The  Problem  of  Labor 

The  Quartermaster's  Department  was  charged  with 
the  supply  of  labor  for  the  Canal  and  the  problem  of 
securing  a  sufficient  supply  of  laborers  was  a  difficult 
one.  In  all  there  have  been  brought  to  the  Isthmus 
43,432  laborers,  of  whom  11,797  came  from  Europe, 
19,448  from  Barbados,  the  balance  from  other  islands 
in  the  West  Indies  and  from  Colombia. 


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In  the  month  of  August,  1912,  there  were  approx- 
imately 45,000  employees  on  the  Isthmus  on  the  rolls 
of  the  Commission  and  of  the  Panama  Railroad  Com- 
pany, about  5,000  of  whom  were  Americans.  There 
were  actually  at  work  on  September  25,  1912,  35,861 
men,  29,571  for  the  Commission,  and  6,290  for  the 
Panama  Railroad  Company.  Of  the  29,571  men  work- 
ing for  the  Commission,  4,166  were  on  the  gold  roll, 


which  comprises  those  paid  in  United  States  currency, 
and  25,405  were  on  the  silver  roll,  which  comprises 
those  paid  on  the  basis  of  Panaman  currency  or  its 
equivalent. 

The  gold  force  is  made  up  of  the  officials,  clerical 
force,  construction  men,  and  skilled  artisans  of  the 
Isthmian  Canal  Commission  and  the  Panama  Rail- 
road Company.  Practically  all  of  them  are  Americans. 
The  average  pay  for  labor  on  the  gold  roll  is  65  cents 
an  hour  for  an  8-hour  day. 

The  silver  force  represents  the  unskilled  laborers  of 
the  Commission  and  the  Panama  Railroad  Company. 
Of  these,  about  4,500  are  Europeans,  mainly  Spaniards, 
with  a  few  Italians  and  other  races.  The  remainder, 
about  25,000,  are  West  Indians,  about  3,700  of  whom 
are  employed  as  artisans,  receiving  16,  20  and  25  cents, 
and  a  small  number  32  and  44  cents,  an  hour.  The 
standard  rate  of  the  West  Indian  laborer  is  10  cents  an 
hour,  but  a  few  of  these  doing  work  of  an  exceptional 
character  are  paid  16  and  20  cents.  The  larger  part 
of  the  Spaniards  are  paid  20  cents  an  hour,  and  the  rest 
16  cents  an  hour.  West  Indian  negroes  have  proved 
the  most  desirable  class  of  unskilled  laborers  to  be  se- 
cured in  sufficient  numbers,  but  their  labor  is  of  poor 
quality,  being  only  about  one-third  efficient. 

The  Subsistence  Department 

The  Canal  and  Panama  Railroad  forces  are  sup- 
plied with  food,  clothing  and  other  necessaries  through 
the  Subsistence  Department,  which  is  divided  into  two 
branches — Commissary  and  Hotel.  The  business  done 
by  the  Commissary  Department  amounts  to  about 


$6,000,000  per  annum,  and  that  done  by  the  hotel 
branch  to  about  $1,500,000  per  annum. 

The  Commissary  system  consists  of  22  general 
stores  in  as  many  Canal  Zone  villages  and  camps 
along  the  relocated  line  of  the  Panama  Railroad.  It 
is  estimated  that  with  employes  and  their  dependents, 
there  are  about  65,000  people  supplied  daily  with  food, 
clothing,  and  other  necessaries. 

The  hotel  branch  maintains  the  Hotel  Tivoli  at 
Ancon,  and  also  18  hotels  along  the  line  for  white 
gold  employes  at  which  meals  are  served  for  thirty 
cents  each.  At  these  18  hotels  there  are  served  monthly 
about  200,000  meals.  There  are  sixteen  messes  for 
European  laborers,  who  pay  40  cents  per  ration  of 
three  meals.  There  are  served  at  these  messes  about 
270,000  meals  per  month.  There  are  also  operated  for 
the  West  Indian  laborers  fourteen  kitchens,  at  which 
they  are  served  a  ration  of  three  meals  for  27  cents  per 
ration.  There  are  about  100,000  meals  served  monthly 
at  these  kitchens. 

The  material  and  supply  branch  carries  in  eight 
general  storehouses  a  stock  of  supplies  for  the  Commis- 
sion and  Panama  Railroad  valued  approximately  at 
$4,500,000.  About  $12,000,000  worth  of  supplies  are 
purchased  annually,  requiring  the  discharge  of  one 
steamer  each  day. 

The  Sanitary  Problem 

Until  comparatively  recent  years  the  Isthmus  of 
Panama  was  a  hotbed  of  disease.  Yellow  fever, 
smallpox  and  other  diseases  in  infinite  variety,  gave  the 
ports  of  Panama  and  Colon  an  evil  reputation  among 


10 


seafarers,  and  as  a  matter  of  practical  business  policy 
it  was  necessary  to  remove  this  cause  of  ill  repute.  In 
the  few  short  years  of  United  States  control  a  truly 
wonderful  transformation  has  been  effected  in  the  ter- 
minal cities  and  throughout  the  Canal  Zone.  The  work 
of  the  Sanitary  Department,  under  Col.  W.  C.  Gorgas, 
well  known  for  his  splendid  sanitary  work  in  Cuba, 
has  been  phenomenally  successful,  making  it  possible 
for  Americans  to  live  and  work  on  the  Isthmus  in  health 
and  happiness  and  thus  performing  a  service  of  in- 
estimable value  toward  the  construction  of  the  canal. 
Over  1200  men  are  carried  on  the  pay  rolls  of  the  De- 
.partment  of  Sanitation  and  the  expenditures  have 
amounted  to  $2,000,000  per  annum.  The  work  must 
be  kept  up  and  the  total  expenses  of  the  Department 
will  amount,  it  is  estimated,  to  about  $20,000,000,  or 
a  little  over  5  per  cent  of  the  total  cost  of  the  Canal. 
The  efforts  of  the  French,  who  spent  for  hospital 
service  less  than  one-half  of  one  per  cent  of  their  total 
expenditures,  were  largely  frustrated  by  disease,  now 
demonstrated  to  be  preventable. 

The  work  of  the  sanitary  officers  has  included  the 
installation  of  complete  water  and  sewerage  systems 
in  the  cities  of  Panama  and  Colon  and  the  waging  of 
successful  warfare  against  the  mosquitoes  responsible 
for  epidemics  of  yellow  fever  and  malaria.  The  result 
has  been  a  veritable  triumph  of  sanitary  science. 


TYPE  OF  THE  CANAL 

The  Panama  Canal  will  have  a  summit  elevation  of 
85  feet  above  the  sea,  to  be  reached  by  a  flight  of  three 
locks  located  at  Gatun,  on  the  Atlantic  side,  and  by 
one  lock  at  Pedro  Miguel  and  a  flight  of  two  at  Mira- 
flores,  on  the  Pacific  side.  All  these  locks  are  in  dupli- 
cate, that  is,  they  have  two  chambers,  side  by  side. 
Each  lock  will  have  a  usable  length  of  1,000  ft.  and  a 
\\idth  of  110  ft.  The  summit  level,  extending  from 
Gatun  to  Pedro  Miguel,  a  distance  of  about  31.5  miles, 
is  to  be  regulated  between  82  and  87  feet  above  sea 
level  by  means  of  the  spillway  in  the  dam  at  Gatun. 
The  Gatun  lake,  which  will  have  an  area  of  164.23 
square  miles,  will  be  maintained  by  earth  dams  at 
Gatun  and  Pedro  Miguel.  The  Chagres  river  and 
other  streams  will  empty  into  this  lake.  A  small 
lake,  about  two  square  miles  in  area,  with  a  surface 
elevation  of  55  feet,  will  be  formed  between  Pedro 
Miguel  and  Miraflores,  the  valley  of  the  Rio  Grande 
being  closed  by  an  earth  dam  on  the  west  side  and  a 
concrete  dam  with  spillway  on  the  east  side  at  Mira- 
flores. 

The  approaches  from  deep  water  to  the  Gatun  locks 
on  the  Atlantic  side,  and  from  deep  water  to  the  locks 
at  Miraflores  on  the  Pacific  side,  will  be  sea-level 
channels,  about  7  and  8  miles  in  length,  respectively, 
and  each  500  feet  wide. 

Length,  Width  and  Depth  of  Canal 
The  Canal  will  be  about  50  miles  in  length  from  deep 
water  in  the  Caribbean  Sea  to  deep  water  in  the  Pacific 
Ocean.     The  distance  from  deep  water  to  the  shore 


line  in  Limon  Bay  is  about  4j/£  miles,  and  from  the 
Pacific  shore  line  to  deep  water  is  about  four  miles; 
hence  the  length  of  the  Canal  from  shore  to  shore  will 
be  approximately  41^  miles. 

The  average  width  of  the  channel  throughout  is 
649  feet,  and  the  minimum  width  300  feet.  The  Canal 
will  have  a  minimum  depth  of  41  feet. 

The  Ship's  Passage  Through  the  Canal 

In  entering  the  canal  from  the  Atlantic  side,  a  ship 
will  proceed  from  deep  water  in  Limon  Bay  to  Gatun 
locks,  a  distance  of  6.9  miles,  through  a  channel  500 
feet  wide;  passing  into  the  locks,  0.78  of  a  mile  in  length, 
the  ship  will  be  carried  up  to  an  elevation  of  85  feet 
above  sea  level  in  3  lifts  to  the  level  of  the  water  in 
Gatun  lake;  thence  for  a  distance  of  16  miles  the  channel 
is  1,000  feet  or  more  in  width  to  Mile  23.7;  from  this 
point  to  Mile  26.9  the  channel  is  800  feet  wide;  from 
this  point  to  Mile  27.45  the  channel  is  700  feet  wide; 
from  this  point  to  Mile  31.5,  near  Bas  Obispo,  the 
channel  is  500  feet  wide;  from  Bas  Obispo  to  Pedro 
Miguel  lock,  through  the  Culebra  Cut,  to  Mile  39.68 
the  channel  is  300  feet  wide.  Going  through  Pedro 
Miguel  lock,  0.37  of  a  mile  in  length,  the  vessel  will  be 
lowered  to  the  level  of  Miraflores  Lake,  55  feet  above 
mean  tide,  through  which  there  will  be  a  channel  500 
feet  wide  to  Miraflores  locks  at  Mile  41.72,  thence 
through  the  two  Miraflores  locks,  0.58  of  a  mile  in 
length,  the  vessel  will  be  lowered  to  tide  level  and  pro- 
ceed through  a  channel  500  feet  wide  to  deep  water  in 
the  Pacific  at  Mile  50.5.  It  is  estimated  that  the  time 
required  for  the  passage  of  a  ship  of  medium  size 
through  the  entire  length  of  the  Canal  will  be  from 


11 


Gatun  Dam,  Spillway  and  Locks. 


to  10  hours,  and  for  larger  vessels  from  lu>i  to 
11  hours.  All  vessels  will  be  towed  through  the  locks 
by  electric  locomotives. 

MILEAGE  SAVED  BY  THE  CANAL 

The  following  table  shows  the  mileage  that  will  be 
saved  by  vessels  proceeding  from  New  York  and  Liver- 
pool, respectively,  to  various  ports  in  the  Pacific  via  the 
Panama  Canal  as  compared  with  the  voyage  via  the 
Straits  of  Magellan: 


New  York 
to 

Via  Magellan 
Nautical  Miles 
(6080  feet) 

Via  the 
Panama 
Canal 

Saving 
in 
Mileage 

San  Francisco 
Sitka,  Alaska 
Honolulu 
Callao 
Valparaiso 


13135 

14437 

13312 

9613 

8380 


5262 
6564 
6702 
3363 
4633 


7873 
7873 
6610 
6250 
3747 


Liverpool  to 

San  Francisco  13502  7836  5666 

Sitka,  Alaska  14804  9138  5666 

Honolulu  13679  9276  4403 

Callao  9980  5937  4043 

Valparaiso  8747  7207  1540 


The  lock  system  of  the  canal  will  include  six  double 
locks;  three  pairs  in  flight  at  Gatun,  with  a  combined 
lift  of  85  feet;  one  pair  at  Pedro  Miguel,  with  a  lift  of 
30M  feet  and  two  pairs  at  Miraflores,  with  a  combined 
lift  of  54%  feet  at  mean  tide.  The  usable  dimensions 
of  all  are  the  same — a  length  of  1,000  feet,  and  width  of 
110  feet.  Each  lock:  is~ar  chamber ,  with,  walls  and  floor 
of  concrete,  and  mitering  gates  at  each  end. 


Side  Wall  of  Locks  Compared  with  Six-story 
Building. 


13 


Cross  Section  of  Lock  Chamber  and  Walls  of  Locks. 


A. — Passageway  for  operators. 
B — Gallery  for  electric  wires. 
C — Drainage  gallery.     : 
D— Culvert  in  center  vail. 


E — These  culverts-  run  under  Hie  lock  floor 
and  alternate  with  those  from  sidewaUs. 

p — Wells  opening  from  lateral  culverts  into 
lock  chamber. 

G — Culvert  in  sidewatts.. 

B— Lateral  culverts. 


The  side  walls  are  45  to  50  feet  wide  at  the  surface  of 
the  floor;  are  perpendicular  on  the  facet  and  narrow 
from  a  point  24  ^  feet  above  the  floor  until  they  are 
8  feet  wide  at  the  top.  The  middle  wall  is  60  feet  wide, 
approximately  81  feet  high,  and  each  face  is  vertical. 

The  lock  gates  are  steel  structures  7  feet  thick,  65 
feet  long,  and  from  47  to  82  feet  high.  They  weigh 
from  300  to  600  tons  each.  Ninety-two  leaves  are  re- 
quired for  the  entire  canal,  the  total  weighing  57,000 
tons. 

Electricity  will  be  used  to  tow  all  vessels  into  and 
through  the  locks,  and  to  operate  all  gates  and  valves, 


power  being  generated  by  water  turbines  from  the  head 
created  by  Gatun  Lake.  Vessels  will  not  be  permitted 
to  enter  or  pass  through  the  locks  under  their  own  power, 
but  will  be  towed  through  by  electric  locomotives  run- 
ning on  cog-rails  laid  on  the  tops  of  the  lock  walls. 
There  will  be  two  towing  tracks  for  each  flight  of  locks, 
one  on  the  side  and  one  on  the  middle  wall.  The  num- 
ber of  locomotives  used  will  vary  with  the  size  of  the 
vessel.  The  usual  number  required  will  be  four;  two 
ahead,  one  on  each  wall,  imparting  motion  to  the 
vessel,  and  two  astern,  one  on  each  wall,  to  aid  in  keep- 
ing the  vessel  in  a  central  position  and  to  bring  it  to 
rest  when  entirely  within  the  lock  chamber. 


14 


Model  of  Pedro  Miguel  Locks 

The  lock  on  the  right  is  nearly  filled  for  an  upward 
lockage.  Four  electric  locomotives  are  shown  securely 
holding  a  10,000-ton  ship,  and  ready  to  tow  it  out  of 
the  lock,  so  soon  as  the  upper  gates  are  opened.  In  the 
foreground  is  shown  a  protective  chain;  at  the  entrance 
to  the  lock  on  the  left  is  shown  a  caisson  in  position  and 
acting  as  a  barrier  between  the  high  level  above  and  the 
low  level  below  the  lock. 


On  the  right  is  shown  an  emergency  dam  in  its  normal 
position  when  not  in  use,  and  on  the  left  the  other  dam 
is  shown  swung  in  position  across  the  lock  with  the 
wicket  girder  down  in  readiness  to  support  the  wickets 
or  gates  which  complete  the  barrier. 


Value  of  the  $40,000,000  French  Purchase 

A  careful  official  estimate  has  been  made  by  the 
Canal  Commission  of  the  value  to  the  Commission  of 
the  franchises,  equipment,  material,  work  done,  and 
property  of  various  kinds  for  which  the  United  States 
paid  the  French  Canal  Company  $40,000,000.  It 
places  the  total  value  at  $42,799,826,  divided  as  follows: 

Excavation,  useful  to  the  Canal,  29,- 

708,000  cubic  yards 

Panama  Railroad  Stock 

Plant  and  material,  used  and  sold  for 


scrap 

Buildings,  used 

Surveys,  plans,  maps  and  records .... 

Land 

Clearings,  roads,  etc 

Ship  channel  in  Panama  Bay,  four 

years' 


use. 


$25,389,240.00 
9,644,320.00 

2,112,063.00 
2,054,203.00 
2,000,000.00 
1,000,000.00 
100,000.00 

500,000.00 


Total $42,799,826.00 


15 


ISTHMIAN   CANAL   AMD  ZONE 


Gatun  Upper  Locks,  West  Chamber,  Looking  North,  Showing  Upper  Guard  Gates,  Operating  Gates,  Intermediate  Gates,  and  Safety 

Gates  in  Process  of  Construction,  June  7,  1912. 


Gatun  Upper  Locks,  Looking  North  from  Lighthouse,  July  2,  1912. 


d 
o 

"o 
U 


Gatun  Upper  Locks,  East  Chamber,  Looking  North  from  Forebay.    Showing   Upper  Guard  Gates   and  Emergency   Dam   Sill 

July  7,  1912. 


Pedro  Miguel  Locks,  South  End  of  East  Chamber,  Showing  Construction  of  Safety  and  Lower  Gates,  June  3,  1912. 


Gatun  Upper  Locks,  Miter  Gate  Moving  Machine,  Structural  Steel  Girders  for  Towing  Locomotive  Track  Supports  in 

Foreground,  June,  1912. 


o 
O 


a 
s 

6 


Pedro  Miguel  Locks,  Detail  of  Construction  of  Electric  Towing  Locomotive  Rack  Track. 


Miraflores  Upper  Locks.  Center  Wall  Culvert,  Showing  Stoney  Gate  Castings  in  Place,  June  23,  1912 


Cylindrical  Valve  Machine,  Motor  and  Limit  Switch.     Electricity  is  Used  to  Operate  all  Gates  and  Valves  of  the  Locks. 


Rising  Stem  Gate  Valve  Machine. 


Front  Tower.  Range  5-6,  Atlantic  Division.     An  Elaborate  System  of  Range  Lights  Assists  Navigators  Through  the  Open  Waters 

of  the  Canal. 


Rear  Tower,  Range  9-11,  Pacific  Entrance.  Looking  Northwest,  November  7,  1911. 


CQ 
a 
o 

1 


Front  Tower,  Range  9-11,  Pacific  Entrance  Looking  Southeast,  November  7,  1911. 


Gatun  Lower  Locks  Looking  South  from  Cofferdam,  Showing  West  Chambers  of  Upper  and  Middle  Locks,  November  9,  1911. 


Gatun  Locks  Forebay,  East  Side  Looking  North,  Showing  Flaring  Approach  Wall,  June  7,  1912 


Gatun  Dam.     West  Section  of  Dam  Looking  West,  Showing  Progress  of  Hydraulic  Fill,  June  12,  1912. 


Gatun  Spillway  Looking  East  Toward  Locks,  Showing  Up  and  Down  Stream  Faces  of  Ogee  Dam,  June  6,  1912. 


Culebra  Cut,  South  End,  Looking  South  from  Bridge  57  J^  and  Showing  the  Partly  Completed  Anchorage  Basin  North  of  Pedro 
Miguel  Lock.     Train  on  Completed  Bottom  of  Canal,  Elevation  +40,  June,  1912. 


Culebra  Cut  Looking  North  from  Bridge  57*^,  Near  Paraiso.      The  Train  on  the  Left,  Just  Beyond  the  Trestle  Bridge,  is  on  the 

Completed  Bottom  of  the  Canal,  Elevation  +40,  June,  1912! 


Culebra  Cut,  Looking  South  from  Empire  Suspension  Bridge.      The  Group  of  Well  Drills  in  the  Middle  of  the  Canal  is  About  27 

Feet  Above  the  Bottom,  or  at  Elevation  +67,  May,  1912. 


Calebra  Cut  Looking  North  from  Las  Cascades.     All  Trains  are  Standing  on  the  Bottom  of  the  Cut,  Elevation  +40,  May,  1912. 


Culohra  Cut  Looking  South  From  Bend  in  East  Bank  Near  Gamboa.       The  Train  and  Shovel  are  Standing  on  the  Bottom  of  the 
Cut,  The  Water  in  the  Drainage  Channel  is  About  10  Feet  Below  the  Bottom  of  the  Canal,  or  at  Elevation  -t-30,  June,  1912. 


Slide  in  East  Bank  of  Canal  Near  Cucaracha,  June,  1912. 


Cul 


Cut,  Culebra.     Break  in  East  Bank  of  Canal.     Amount  of  Material  Involved,  320,009  Cubic  Yards      The  Train  Shown 
m  Foreground  is  About  35  Feet  Above  the  Bottom,  or  at  Elevation  +75.     February  11,  1912.   " 


' 


I 

.23 


00 

a 


H 


Slide  of  Stratified  Rock,  West  Bank  of  Canal,  Culebra-on-the-Dump,  Looking  Toward  Culebra.     Slide  Involves  About  1,000,000 
Cubic  Yards  and  Moved  About  3  Feet  Per  Day  on  a  Slope  of  1  Vertical  to  7  Horizontal.     The  Train  is 

Standing  at  Elevation  +95,  February,  1912. 


Steam  Shovel  218  Buried  Under  Fall  of  Rock,  West  Side  of  Canal,  Near  Las  Cascadas      This  Shovel  was  Working  on  the 

Bottom  of  the  Canal  when  Destroyed,  May  31,  1912. 


South  End  of  Naos  Island  Dump,  4  000  Feet  from  Island.     Center  at  "A"  is  75  Feet  from  Track  and  25  Feet  Above  the 

Original  Bottom.     Elevation  of  Trestle,  +14,  December,  1911. 


Pedro  Miguel  Locks.     Bird's-Eye  View  From  Hill  on  East  Bank,  July  28,  1912 


Pedro  Miguel  Locks      Bird's-Eye  View  of  North  Approach  Wall  from  Hill  at  East  End,  July  28,  1912. 


Pedro  Miguel  Locks,  Looking  South.     West  Fere  Bay,  with  Emergency  Dam  Sill.     June  5   1912 


.£» 

a 
= 


3 
DQ 


Miraflores  Upper  Locks.     G^nsral  View  Looking  North  from  Lower  West  Bank,  Showing  Cylindrical  Valves.     July  25,  1911. 


Miraflores  Locks  Looking  North,  June  21,  1912. 


BANCROFT 

I 1DDABV 


Miraflores  Locks,  West  Chamber,  Lookirg  South,  June  23,  1912. 


" 


Stripping  Cocoli  Hill  Adjacent  to  Canal  Prism,  March  21,  1912. 


Balboa  Lumber  Dock  of  Reinforced  Concrete,  Looking  Northeast,  June,  1912. 


Empire-Chorrera  16-foot  Macadam  Road  Under  Construction  with  Zone  Prison  Labor.  August  29,  1912 


OFFICIAL  STATISTICS  OF  THE  CANAL 


Length  from  deep  water  tc  deep  water 

(miles) 50 

Length    from    shore-line    to    shore-line 

(miles) .40 

Bottom  width  of  channel,  maximum  (feet)  1,000 

Bottom  width  of  channel,  minimum,  9 

miles,  Culebra  Cut  (feet) 

Locks,  in.  pairs 

Locks)  usable  length  (feet) 

Locks,  usable  width  (feet) 

Gatun  Lake,  area  (square  miles) 

Gatun  Lake,  channel  depth  (feet) 

Culebra  Cut,  channel  depth  (feet) 

Excavation,  estimated  total  (cubic  yds.) . . 
Excavation,    amount    accomplished    by 

Americans    January    1,    1913    (cubic 

yards) 188,280,312 

Excavation    by   the    French,    useful   to 

present  canal  (cubic  yards) 29,908,000 

Total  excavation  by  the  French  (cubic 

yards) 78,146,960 


Excavation    by    the    French,    estimated 

value  to  canal $25,389,240 

Value  of  all  French  property $42,799,826 

Concrete  total  estimated  for  canal  (cubic 

yards) 5,000,000 

Time  of  transit  through  completed  canal 

(hours) 10  to  12 

Time  of  passage  through  locks  (hours) .  .  3 

Relocated  Panama  Railroad,  estimated 

cost $9,000,000 

Relocated  Panama  Railroad,  length 

(miles) 47 . 1 

Canal  Zone,  area  (square  miles) 448 

Canal  and  Panama  Railroad  force  ac- 
tually at  work  May  1,  1912  (about).  35,000 
Canal  and  Panama  Railroad  force, 

Americans  (about) 5,000 

Cost  of  canal,  estimated  total $375,000,000 

Work  begun  by  Americans .May  4,  1901 

Date  of  completion,  official Jan  1,  1915 

Excavation  remaining  to  be  done  Jan.  1, 

1913,  estimated  (cubic  yards) 23,426,713 


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1018  Fillmore  St.  Heat  Gyifen  Gate  An. 


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